Known to many by his nickname, ‘Biggie’ (he had a brother who was smaller and therefore named ‘Smallie’), he was raised by his mother in a Pearl City, Hawaii neighborhood. His childhood friends included Betty Nakamura, So Young and Junichi Buto (who became instrumental in his life later on as you will soon see). When he was six years old, his mother enrolled him in a Judo class under the direction of Kaneko Sensei.

In 1927, the young Kim watched a Karate demonstration at the Nuuanu YMCA by Yabu Kentsu. Yabu Kentsu was visiting Hawaii on his way back to Okinawa. The young Kim was so impressed by the demonstration that he joined a karate class being given by Sadao Arakaki. (It has been documented that Sensei Kim also trained with Ankichi Arakaki but Ankichi Arakaki never visited Hawaii.) Sadao Arakaki was Yabu Kentsu’s disciple in Hawaii. Many of Sensei Kim’s katas were prefixed ‘Yabu’ like ‘Yabu Chinto.’ (Sensei Kim told me this information personally and is why he called them Yabu Chinto etc.)

In 1930, Richard Kim finished his schooling at one of Hawaii’s oldest high schools, McKinley High, which was established in 1865 in Honolulu, Hawaii. The school was primarily made up of Oriental students, with 84 per cent of the students being Asian. These were the roots that allowed Richard Kim to become one of America’s leading Karate pioneers, particularly in the area of research and journalism.

He then went on to study at the University of Hawaii (he did not graduate from this University), as well as Tung Wen College (where he studied languages and the art of investigation), and St. John’s University both in Shanghai, China, during WWII. No documentation can be found as to what degree or how long he studied at either institution. He did claim a PhD from St John’s University though. (He told me this, personally, when I asked him how long he studied at St. John’s University. He said, “Well, let me put it this way – it was amazing what you could get from people when you had a gun at your side and were part of the Kempei Tei during WWII in Shanghai.” That said volumes to me and I never forgot it. ~D.W.)

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In 1933, Richard Kim met and trained with Mutsu Mizuho (Mizuho Takada was a student of Gichin Funakoshi’s), who was visiting Hawaii from Tokyo with Kamesuke Higashionna. Sensei Kim trained in Honolulu with Tachibana Sensei, as well, in 1933.

The young Richard Kim spent a great deal of time at Sato’s Boxing Gym on Maunakea Street where, like many young Hawaiians, he acquired his boxing skills. While training and boxing with some of the top world contenders of the era, including Midgett Wolgast (World Flyweight Champion 1930), with whom he was a sparring partner. Richard Kim had 42 fights in the ring and managed to attain a record of 42-0. These were the classic smokers of the 1930s.

In one fight, Sensei Kim nearly lost the vision in his left eye by being thumbed with rosin spread on his opponent’s glove.

In 1935, he joined the merchant marines and was soon Orient-bound to further his study of the Martial Arts.

He eventually found his way to Japan where he studied under some of the great karate masters of the time, including the legendary Yabu Kentsu, whom he remembered having seen as a young boy in Hawaii.

It soon became apparent that being in the merchant marines allowed him to travel throughout the Orient and gather knowledge on the subject that would become his lifelong pursuit and passion – the Martial Arts.

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Eventually, Sensei Kim’s career as a merchant marine working for the American Presidents Line, led him to be trapped behind enemy lines in Shanghai on December 8, 1941, during World War II at the age of 23. (Keep in mind that December 7, 1941 is the date the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor).

According to the Sailor’s Union of The Pacific many ships were captured by the Japanese and the crews were interned in Asia until after the war. One of these ships was the S.S. President Harrison on which Richard Sun Sung Kim O.S. (Ordinary Seaman) was at the time.

The S.S. Harrison was on its way to Shanghai to evacuate the US Fourth Marines, when it was intercepted by a Japanese Zero that fired its machine guns across the bow of the ship ordering it to stop. This is when the captain, Orel Pierson, chose to head for the Shaweishan Islands and ram the freighter into a stone cliff, rendering it useless to the Japanese military since it had been outfitted for carrying troops already. Eventually it was fixed and used by the Japanese military to carry troops.

Sensei Kim was in Shanghai for the entire length of WWII. According to the author of Captives of Shanghai, no one was released early except for two people – a stewardess and a man who eventually had both legs amputated. So there is no doubt he was there for the war.

Because of his partial Japanese mother and his Korean father, he was not looked at as an ordinary American. According to Sensei Kim himself, he became a translator (remember Sensei Kim spoke Russian, Korean, Mandarin, Japanese and English fluently) and eventually acted as a double for an unnamed high-ranking Japanese Officer who he often referred to just as the Colonel.

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NOTE: The Japanese military did not have a rank of Colonel – the equivalent rank was Major General. According to notes and after talking to some of his students from the early years, it was also during this time period that he met many high ranking Japanese officers, including Major General Kenji Doihara (Lawrence of Asia) who was eventually hung for War Crimes on December 23, 1948.

According to Hiroshi Kinjo, one of Sensei Kim’s associates during the 1950s, Sensei Kim told him that he was in Shanghai during World War II where he studied Chuan Fa, or Chinese Martial Arts. Hiroshi Kinjo also mentioned that Mr. Kim was not very forthcoming about his past, or where he came from, and he rarely discussed his years in the war.

While in China, Richard Kim studied Tai Chi Chuan under the tutelage of Chen Chin Yuan, and Pa Kua under the guiding hand of Chao Hsu Lie a Taoist monk.

Later, Wang Xiang Zhay taught him Yi Chuan. Much of his training in the internal arts was done in Jessefield Park, which is now called Zhongshan Park. All the English names were changed to Chinese after the Revolution by Mao Tse Tung. Wang was a famous Chinese master of the internal system.

Kim first met Yoshida Kotaro in the City of Sendai (northern Japan) during the late 1930s, and then again in 1941 in Shanghai, when Kotaro was working as a spy for the Japanese (as he had done in Manchuria and in the Russo-Japanese War, as well).

According to other books we have read, Shanghai was full of spies for all sides during the war, because of the multi-national citizens there at the time. Russians were working for the Chinese and Chinese were working for the Japanese and Germans were working for the Russians – it is quite logical that Sensei Kim, a Korean, was working for the Japanese.

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Sensei Kim told many of us that one day at the end of the war, while at the home of one of the Japanese officers in Shanghai (who had used his services as a translator and double), when there was a knock on the door. It was an American officer, 1st Lieutenant Junichi Buto, looking for war criminals. Fortunately for Sensei Kim, Junichi Buto was the same childhood friend from Hawaii that he had protected as a kid. Junichi Buto was also credited for getting Sensei Kim out of Shanghai and back to Hawaii as a repatriate. Knowing Sensei Kim well, Junichi Buto was not surprised to find him in this tricky situation – and he asked no questions. According to three sources, Sensei Kim’s Japanese name was Masaki and this is probably who Junichi Buto was looking for in the first place. (It was not usual for Koreans to take Japanese names, due to the prejudice in Japan towards the Koreans. For example, Mas Oyama is a Japanese name, but he was 100% Korean.) The Japanese government made it easy for them to change their names to Japanese, as part of the government policy to incorporate Koreans into the Japanese empire.

On September 27, 1945, he was put on board a hospital ship called “The Refuge”, formerly known as the US President Madison, for a short trip that landed him in Naha, Okinawa. It was here that he, along with 454 other repatriots, service men, women and children, was put on to the U.S.S. Sanctuary. Destination – San Francisco. The U.S.S. Sanctuary had successfully avoided a typhoon while at sea, when the call came in from the commander of the 5th Fleet for the U.S.S. Sanctuary to report to Naha, Okinawa, for what was called ‘magic carpet duty’ – a term used by the Navy to describe that this oceanliner was being used to assist in an air lift evacuation to save the POWs (women and children, servicemen, etc.).

On October 18, 1941, Sensei Kim got off the U.S.S. Sanctuary in Hawaii and was reunited with his family. After only three months back and a short visit in Hawaii with his family and a check up, Sensei Kim went back to Japan, as his research in the Martial Arts was not complete.

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Later, he continued to shuttle back and forth between Hawaii and Japan. While in Hawaii, he visited, trained and taught in many Karate dojos.

During this time, Sensei Kim worked for the President’s Shipping Line (in the Deck department). In August 1949, it is documented in a US Coast Guard trial, that merchant marines Manual Medeiros and Richard Sun Sung Kim were involved in a knife fight onboard the S.S. Wilson in which they were attacked by a gang wielding knives. During this fight, Kim and Medeiros were cut. They defended themselves using fireman axes when backed into a corner. No one was killed, but it certainly shows that Sensei Kim had to put his Martial Arts into action. He often showed those cuts on his arm as he told this story to many of his students. The fight had started when a drunken sailor had bashed Medeiros over the head with a whiskey bottle.

Around 1948-49, Sensei Kim moved back to Japan from Hawaii on a permanent basis, and studied with many Martial Arts masters. In 1949, he trained under Kenichi Sawai, who was a student of Wang Xiang Zhay’s in Shanghai. Sawai never taught indoors and, in fact, held classes at the base of the Meiji Shrine in Tokyo where all of Japan’s war heroes are buried. Sawai’s book, called “Taikei Ken”, is one of those super rare books on the Martial Arts that depicts his style, the way he learned it directly from Wang Xiang Zhay. Sawai had over 100 fights and he never lost one. He used only 8 techniques that he learned from Master Wang.

Later on, Sensei Kim was employed by the Sailor’s Union of The Pacific as their Yokohama Branch Agent, he worked closely with Harry Lundburg. The photo shows him and Lundburg in Guam resolving Union matters.

Sensei Kim lost his maritime papers due to a court martial in 1949. Then Harry Lundburg appointed Sensei Kim as the Yokohama agent, which he maintained until he left Japan in 1959. It wasn’t until 1959 that he made San Francisco, California, his permanent base.

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Sensei Kim was married four times. His first wife was of Russian origin and was killed during an air raid in Shanghai. He met his second wife in Honolulu. She was of Korean decent. They had a son together.

Later in Yokohama he met his third wife, with whom he had a baby girl. His third wife was educated in America, and was of Okinawan/Japanese origin. He met karate master Hiroshi Kinjo through his wife’s family, since Hiroshi Kinjo came from the same town in Okinawa as did Sensei Kim’s father-in-law. (Sensei Kim often called Hiroshi Kinjo a walking Encyclopedia.) Kinjo was a famous Martial Artist who was associated with Mr. Ohno Kumao, the head of the reformation of the Dai Nippon Bu Toku Kai. Sensei Kim was first introduced (as was the Japanese custom) to Ohno Sensei by Toyomo Mitsuro (the head of the Black Dragon Society) in 1927. Ohno Sensei (as he was referred to by Sensei Kim) was one of the Japan’s most famous kendo masters. He had over 100 matches and was never beaten. Sensei Kim was recommended by Hiroshi Kinjo to Ohno Sensei for his 7th, 8th and 9th degree black belts.
It should also be noted at this point in time the Dai Nippon Bu Toku Kai (DNBK), and Martial Arts in general, were in a disarray throughout Japan. Nobody was allowed to practice since General Douglas MacArthur had outlawed all Martial Arts.

MacArthur was convinced that the Dai Nippon Bu Toku Kai was one of the reasons WWII had started. The thinking being that since many high-ranking officers were members of the DNBK they must have had a big part in the start of the war. It should be noted that the DNBK was a strong supporter of the Emperor and its members believed strongly in the ways of Budo and the Samurai. This was indicated in its name, DAI = All, NIPPON = Japan, BU = Military, TOKU = Virtue, KAI = Organization

There were some exhibitions of the Martial Arts during this time, but they were not official by any means whatsoever. The Dai Nippon Bu Toku Kai was not officially reformed until 1954 when it was reactivated under the auspices of a member of the Japanese Diet named MaChino and the legendary Ohno Kumao.

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With the end of war, as is common, came the mass burning of many of the records kept during the war. This included the records of the DNBK. Hence, there is much confusion as to who was in and who wasn’t in the DNBK prior to the end of WWII. This is partly why many believe that the Dai Nippon Bu Toku Kai of post WWII had its roots in the Black Dragon Society, an elite group of spies who were dedicated to restoring the ideals of bushido, casting out the foreigners and restoring Imperial Reign.

Sensei Kim and his third wife owned and ran a bar called The Pilot House in Yokohama’s ‘China town’. It was known to be a bar frequented by US sailors visiting Yokohama. The Pilot House also became well known to martial artists living in Tokyo and Yokohama.

They gathered there, and considered it as a place they could meet freely and talk about what they loved. It was here that Sensei Kim met many legends, including Yoshida Kotaro again, who he had first met in Sendai and then again in Shanghai in 1941. Eventually, Yoshida Kotaro moved in with Sensei Kim and his family for seven years, from 1949 until approximately 1956. During this period he also trained in Shotokan karate with Minatoya who rented a second floor room from Sensei Kim at The Pilot House. Yoshida left when Sensei Kim took up his merchant marine job and had to ship out again.

Yoshida was an “odd duck” as Sensei would say, but one of the things that Yoshida Sensei insisted on was the training with many of Japan’s top masters, which included Moreihei Ueshiba (founder of Aikido) in his dojo in Wakumatsu Cho. Sensei Kim became very friendly with Ueshiba’s top students, including Nobuyoshi Tamura, who moved to France in 1964. Tamura was one of Ueshiba’s favorite ukes and is seen in many of the films on Ueshiba. He trained 6 days a week with Ueshiba Sensei for one year from 6-9 each morning.

It was Yoshida Kotaro who trained Sensei Kim to become proficient in Japanese weaponry, including the sword, spear, tanto and bo. He also taught him the art of Aiki. In 1952, Yoshida Sensei gave Sensei Kim his ‘Menkyo Kaiden’ (a certificate of full proficiency given by a master to a chosen student best suited to carry on the style). He also gave him the scrolls of the style depicting the history of Daito Ryu, as well as all the techniques. Today these scrolls are in the possession of Sensei Kim’s fourth wife Mrs. May Kim, who resides in Sacramento, California.

When Sensei Kim first met May he was fascinated by her singing abilities and eventually fell deeply in love with her. He would often say that ‘nothing is too good for my wife’. May Kim is a staunch supporter and protector of Sensei Kim’s name, his reputation and legacy. She continues to run the “Way Of Man Kind”, an organization that strives for the betterment of all.

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Perhaps Peter Urban was exaggerating when he said in his book, “The Karate Sensei” that Sensei Kim had over 100 marriage proposals, but it is the absolute truth that he was admired and loved by many. “His intellect often upset the intellectual pygmies,” is another quote from Sensei Urban’s book.

During this period he also studied with Gogen “The Cat” Yamaguchi and both he and Mas Oyama were brown belts in 1948-49. Both Sensei Kim and Oyama received their shodan from Yamaguchi Gogen in 1950. This was just before Oyama moved into the mountains to train for 18 months at the suggestion of Sou Nei-Chu. Sou Nei-Chu was one of Yamaguchi’s senior and best students.

Sensei Oyama and Sensei Kim became very good friends during the next short period of time, and continued training together. In Mas Oyama’s 1958 book, the revised edition of ‘What Is Karate’ (written in 1956), Sensei Kim is thanked by Oyama for helping create the book. He is also seen in the book with Mas Oyama acting as Oyama’s uke in many photos.

During this time frame, Peter Urban also began his training with Mas Oyama. As it happens, it was Sensei Kim who introduced Oyama and Urban. Urban is also seen extensively throughout Oyama’s book. Sensei Kim and Oyama were actually each other’s benefactors, meaning that if one of them were killed the other would inherit the other’s worldly possessions.

According to Hiroshi Kinjo, he and Richard Kim were also very close friends and Kinjo taught Sensei Kim many kata including Chinto, Kusanku-dai/sho Kanku Dai and many others. Kinjo and Toyama Kanken also taught him the Okinawan weapons forms. Kinjo was a noted Okinawan Karate/Kobudo master and was appointed the official representative for the Dai Nippon Bu Toku Kai for Karate. The post was then turned over to Gogen Yamaguchi in the mid-1970s. It was Hiroshi Kinjo who recommended his training partners both Sensei Oyama and Sensei Kim for 7th dan.

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Kinjo eventually recommended Sensei Kim to the Dai Nippon Bu Toku Kai for both his 8th and 9th dan, as well. Sensei Kim attained his 9th dan early in 1968, also from the Dai Nippon Bu Toku Kai. This is the highest rank that is issued to anyone alive. Only at a person’s passing are they promoted to 10th dan. This was done for Sensei Kim when he died in 2001, by the International Traditional Karate-Do Federation’s Chief Instructor, Master Hidetaka Nishiyama at Sensei Kim’s memorial in Sacramento. He was also promoted to 10th dan on May 14, 1999, by Hawaii Karate Kodanshakai.

Sensei Kim never used his 9th dan rank until the early 1990s. We have no idea why. One explanation might be that he felt it was given to him prematurely by Higashi Fushime (the Prince of Japan) whose official seal is on the certificate. Some say that these certificates were forgeries, but when they were shown to an expert in Japanese Martial arts history at the Kyoto University, he said they did not appear to be forgeries and not having numbers on them meant very little.

After the war, Sensei Kim continued to shuttle back and forth between Japan and the United States as a merchant marine. During this period, he often returned to Hawaii, teaching and training at many Karate dojos there, including the Te Ken Jutsu Kai dojo of Masaichi Oshiro (originally a Kenpo Karate student of William H. Chow and later a Goju-Ryu student of Gogen Yamaguchi’s).

In 1957, Sensei Kim visited San Francisco while continuing his work as a representative for the Sailor’s Union representing the other merchant marines. He also traveled extensively back and forth to the Orient while he worked on the ships as a 3rd Stewart in charge of the crew which took care of the passengers. He went back to Japan in 1957 and tried to attain permanent status. Due to his questionable background in Japan he was denied permanent status and in 1959 he returned to the USA permanently.

It was also in 1957 that he met Clarence Lee and began teaching karate in Clarence Lee’s mother’s garage on Taraval Street in San Francisco. His first group of students in the United States included Clarence Lee, Richard Lee and Herbert Lee, all of whom became very proficient under Sensei Kim’s tutelage. During this time, he met Duke Moore, who was one of the American Martial Arts pioneers and also taught at his school on Market Street. It was at this club that Sensei Kim also taught Judo. In 1961, Tony Troche began his training and then in 1962 Urbano Tejo joined with his daughter Lenore and her brothers. The Market Street Dojo was one of those special dojos in the USA that really started the Martial Arts rolling. Others, who either taught or trained at this dojo, were names like Wally Jay, Willy Cahill, Harold Getz, Jerry Streeter, LeRoy Rodriguez, Johnny Pereira and many others.

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When I interviewed LeRoy Rodriguez, who was one Sensei’s earliest students, he could not emphasize enough the severity of the training at this dojo. He said that at one point Chuck Siani was training very hard for a big Judo competition and they trained for three-hours-a-day, non-stop. He, Troche, Chuck and Robert Leong and a few others would work out together. According to Siani and Rodriguez, Sensei Kim’s groundwork and matwork were exceptional. When he lived in Shanghai he was a student at the Shanghai Busen, and Judo’s Michigami was one of the true judo legends that taught in Shanghai.

Sensei Kim eventually moved his headquarters to the Chinese YMCA in Chinatown around 1964 at 855 Sacramento Street. Clarence Lee had established the Chinese YMCA Karate program and turned it over to Sensei Kim. Sensei Kim was the unofficial international representative of the Dai Nippon Bu Toku Kai, establishing branches in the United States, Canada, Germany and France.

In 1959, when Sensei Kim moved from Japan to the United States, he lived in the Haight/Ashbury section of San Francisco during the hippy revolution of the ’60s and ’70s.

He established the Zen Bei Bu Toku Kai, which was later called the Bu Toku Kai, which unfortunately lead to much confusion and many misunderstandings. Many understood that this was the official Dai Nippon Bu Toku Kai, which it was not. All the certificates handed out during this time said Zen Bei Bu Toku Kai, not Dai Nippon Bu Toku Kai. According to Sensei Kim, he was asked to do this by the Head of the DNBK at the time, Ohno Kumao. It should be pointed out that after WWII, Martial Arts was not allowed to be practiced in Japan.

Judo was considered a sport rather then a Martial Art. It wasn’t until September 8, 1951, that the official peace treaty was signed allowing the Martial Arts to once again be practiced in Japan. At which time, each Martial Art established its own federation.

Considering the state of things in Japan after WWII, the Martial Arts was not at the top of the list of peoples’ priorities. It was more important to survive, make a living and get Japan back on its feet. There are few records available of the Dai Nippon Bu Toku Kai, as it was considered an ultra-right-wing nationalist group. In fact, it was not removed from the United States enemy list until 1973, by President Richard Nixon, at Sensei Kim’s request. I recall Sensei Kim often saying this is one of the few things Nixon did that was good. I personally believe that Sensei Kim considered this one his biggest accomplishments.

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During a team trip to Japan in 1977, for Hidetaka Nishiyama’s International Amateur Traditional Karate Federation, Sensei Kim arranged for the team to be taken on a special tour of the old Dai Nippon Bu Toku Kai headquarters in Kyoto, established in 1895.

Also during this trip, Sensei Kim met with Ohno Sensei and was given three dan ranks for foreigners: Don Warrener, Brian Ricci, and Tony Molinar. Although these certificates are not numbered, they are signed by Ohno Kumao and have his official seal on them.

Sensei Kim continued to develop the Zen Bei Bu Toku Kai outside of Japan over the next 15 years. It was also established in Canada, France, Germany, England, and Finland.

In the early 1990s, he resigned from the Dai Nippon Bu Toku Kai, as the old guard had changed and a new Dai Nippon Bu Toku Kai was emerging. It was heading in a different direction and Sensei Kim chose not to be a part of their plans.

Sensei Kim often told us that he had the equivalent knowledge to three PhDs in Political Science, Oriental Philosophy, and the Martial Arts. He did receive a degree from Rockwell College at Eurotechnical University, and Universal Life Church. He also received Ph.D.s from St. John’s University for Political Science, and Tung Wen College, which he acquired during WWII. Rockwell and Universal Life Church are both unaccredited universities. Prior to WWII, the Tung Wen College and St. John’s University were very prestigious. These degrees can not be substantiated as both were closed at the end of the war.

It may seem strange to some that he devoted his life to teaching the Martial Arts, but his love of them was apparent. This became obvious to anyone watching him lead a group of students either in California, Massachusetts, Canada, or in Europe.

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One story told by Chuck Siani is quite humorous, and only if you knew Sensei Kim could you imagine it to be true. Chuck asked Sensei Kim if he would like to go with him to his calculus class. Sensei said he would most definitely like to go. Within ten minutes of sitting in on the class, Sensei Kim was standing at the front of the class, and teaching, with the professor sitting, listening and learning.

Richard Kim was a distinguished author several times over. He wrote classic books like: ‘The Weaponless Warriors’, 1974; ‘The Classical Man’, 1982; The Okinawan Kobudo Weapons Series, including the weapons of ‘Matsu Higa’, 1983, ‘Chatan Yara’, 1985, and ‘Hama Higa’, 1987

Sensei Kim was also featured on numerous magazine front covers, countless articles were written about him and by him, and published in various noteworthy publications throughout the Martial Arts world, including Dojo and BUDO magazines. He was a regular columnist for ‘Black Belt Magazine’ and ‘Karate Illustrated’ during the early 1970s. His column, ‘The Classical Man’, featured short stories about Japanese martial artists. They depicted a particular philosophy, or a lesson in psychology, and were one of the magazines’ most popular columns.

He was given many top honors over the years. Some of the most noteworthy are as follows:
• Earned the rank of 4th Dan in Judo during WWII
• 1967: ‘Sensei of the Year’ by Black Belt Magazine
• 1967: Mentioned in the ‘Who’s Who of Martial Arts’
• 1968: He became a Director of the U.S. Team for I.A.K.F. World Championships and held this position for many years to come.
• 1970s: Resident Instructor at Hidetaka Nishiyama’s San Diego Summer Camp (until his passing)
• 1970s-1990s: Was the official weapons teacher to the JKA, according to Keinosuke Enoeda
• 1973: Voted into the ‘Black Belt Magazine Hall of Fame’ as ‘Man Of The Year’
• 1977: Chief Instructor at the Guelph, Ontario, Canada, Summer Camp (until his passing)
• 1983: Chief Instructor at the Victoria, BC Summer Camp (until his passing)
• 1999: May 14, Hawaii Karate Kodanshakai presented Certificate Number 65 to Sensei Kim for a 10th Dan. This prestigious organization also awarded high ranks to other outstanding martial artists, like Bobby Lowe, Kenneth Funakoshi and James Miyaji.
• 2001: Was promoted posthumously to Judan (10th Dan) by Sensei Hidetaka Nishiyama (one of the most famous and respected karate masters alive) his long-time karate associate and dear friend since 1961.

It is clear that Sensei Kim embodied the spirit of the Martial Arts, and mastered being ‘the artist of life.’

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